Ιαπωνική μυθολογία

Ιαπωνική μυθολογία
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Ιζανάγκι και Ιζανάμι



H ιαπωνική μυθολογία απαρτίζεται από ένα σύστημα δοξασιών που ενσωματώνουν στοιχεία της σιντοϊστικής και βουδιστικής παράδοσης, καθώς της λαϊκής θρησκείας με άξονα τη γη και τη γεωργία. Η ιαπωνική μυθολογία σχετίζεται άμεσα με το Σίντο, την παλιότερη ιαπωνική θρησκεία. Τα έργα Κοτζίκι (Διήγηση των Παλαιών Πραγμάτων) και Νιχόν Σόκι (Χρονικά της Ιαπωνίας), αφηγούνται τη δημιουργία των νησιών που αποτελούν την Ιαπωνία από τους θεούς Ιζανάγκι και Ιζανάμι, καθώς και τη γέννηση των μεταγενέστερων θεοτήτων που αποτελούν το ιαπωνικό πάνθεον, των λεγόμενων κάμι (θεότητα ή πνεύμα στα ιαπωνικά).
Στους ιαπωνικούς μύθους στηρίζεται η προέλευση της αυτοκρατορικής οικογένειας της Ιαπωνίας, η οποία έχει θεϊκές καταβολές. Η ιαπωνική λέξη για τον Αυτοκράτορα της χώρας, "tennō" (天皇), σημαίνει "αυτοκράτορας εξ ουρανού".

Ιαπωνικός Μύθος της Δημιουργίας
Οι δυο πρώτες θεότητες, ο Ιζανάγκι και η Ιζανάμι έπλασαν τη γη. Χώρισαν τον ουρανό από τη γη, έφτιαξαν τη θάλασσα, από την οποία έπεσαν σταγόνες και σχημάτισαν το νησί Ονογκόρο, στο οποίο κατοίκησαν οι δυο θεοί. Ύψωσαν μια στήλη και γύρω από αυτή έχτισαν ένα ανάκτορο (Yashirodono).
Οι δυο θεοί ερωτεύτηκαν κι όταν αποφάσισαν να ζευγαρώσουν, έκαναν το γύρο της στήλης σε αντίθετες κατευθύνσεις και η Ιζανάμι πρώτη απηύθυνε χαιρετισμό στον Ιζανάγκι. Από την ένωσή τους προήλθαν οι Χιρούκο και Αουασίμα, τα οποία όμως ήταν δύσμορφα και τα έστειλαν με μια βάρκα μακριά στην ανοιχτή θάλασσα. Οι υπόλοιποι θεοί τους υπαγόρευσαν ότι έγινε αυτό, επειδή στη συνάντησή τους ο Ιζανάγκι έπρεπε να χαιρετίσει πρώτος, γιατί ποτέ μια γυναίκα δεν πρέπει να μιλάει πριν από έναν άνδρα. Έτσι, οι δυο θεοί ξανασμίξανε και από την ένωσή τους προήλθαν τα οκτώ αρχαία μεγάλα νησιά της Ιαπωνίας.

Θεϊκή προέλευση του Αυτοκράτορα
Σύμφωνα με το θρύλο, η θεά Αματεράσου εγκαθίδρυσε την αυτοκρατορική οικογένεια της Ιαπωνίας, στέλνοντας τον εγγονό της, Νινίγκι, να κατοικήσει στη γη, με δώρα έναν καθρέφτη, ένα περιδέραιο και το σπαθί Κουσανάγκι του θεού Σουσάνο. Ο Νινίγκι έγινε δεκτός ως άρχοντας της Ιαπωνίας και τα θεϊκά δώρα αποτέλεσαν τους θησαυρούς του στέμματος της αυτοκρατορικής οικογένειας. Παντρεύτηκε τη θεά του όρους Φούτζι και γέννησαν τρεις γιους, ένας από τους οποίους ήταν ο πατέρας του Τζίμου Τέννο, του πρώτου ιστορικού Ιάπωνα αυτοκράτορα (660 π.Χ.), από τον οποίο προέρχεται η ιαπωνική αυτοκρατορική οικογένεια.

Ιαπωνικές παραδόσεις και μύθοι
Οι λαϊκές ιστορίες της Ιαπωνίας έχουν μεγάλες επιρροές από το Σιντοϊσμό και το Βουδισμό, τις δυο κύριες θρησκείες της χώρας. Αφηγούνται ιστορίες κωμικών ή παράξενων χαρακτήρων και καταστάσεων, υπερφυσικών όντων, όπως οι Μποντισάτβα, οι Κύριοι της Συμπόνοιας, οι Κάμι (θεοί και πνεύματα), γιοκάι (μυθικά τερατώδη όντα όπως ο τένγκου), φαντάσματα, δράκους και ζώα με υπερφυσικές ικανότητες όπως η αλεπού κιτσούνε, το ρακούν τανούκι και η γάτα μπακενέκο, καθώς και ιερών αντικειμένων.
Οι λαϊκοί αυτοί θρύλοι έχουν επηρεαστεί επίσης από την ξένη λογοτεχνία, κυρίως ινδικά κείμενα, και τον ανιμισμό της προϊστορικής Ασίας. Στα μέσα του 20ού αιώνα, παραμυθάδες ταξίδευαν από πόλη σε πόλη και αφηγούνταν τις ιστορίες αυτές συνοδευόμενες από εικονογραφήσεις σε χαρτί (kamishibai).

http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%B1%CF%80%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BC%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1

Αματεράσου

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Τρίπτυχο που παριστάνει την έξοδο της Αματεράσου από το σπήλαιο



Η Αματεράσου (ιαπ. 天照, πλήρες όνομα Amaterasu-ōmikami) στην ιαπωνική μυθολογία και στη θρησκεία του Σίντο ήταν η θεότητα του ήλιου και των ουρανών. Το όνομά της σημαίνει "αυτή που λάμπει στους ουρανούς".
Γεννήθηκε από το αριστερό μάτι του θεού Ιζανάγκι, ενώ κατά μια άλλη εκδοχή από την ένωση του Ιζανάγκι με την Ιζανάμι ^[1]. Αδέρφια της ήταν ο Τσουκουγιόμι, θεός του φεγγαριού, και ο Σουσάνο, θεός της θάλασσας και των καταιγίδων. Ήταν η προστάτιδα των καλλιεργειών σιταριού, ρυζιού και μεταξιού, ενώ εφήυρε την τέχνη της ύφανσης στον αργαλειό.
Όταν ο Σουσάνο ρήμαζε τη γη, εκείνη αποσύρθηκε σε ένα σπήλαιο και έκλεισε την είσοδό του με ένα τεράστιο βράχο. Η εξαφάνισή της όμως είχε σαν συνέπεια να βυθιστεί ο κόσμος στο σκοτάδι και στην απουσία ζωής. Οι υπόλοιποι θεοί έκαναν τα πάντα για να τη δελεάσουν να βγει έξω, απέτυχαν όμως όλοι εκτός από την Ουζούμε. Το γέλιο των θεών για τις κωμικές της κινήσεις και γκριμάτσες προκάλεσαν την περιέργεια της Αματεράσου, η οποία μόλις ξεπρόβαλε για λίγο από το σπήλαιο άφησε να φανεί και μια λαμπρή ακτίδα φωτός, το φως της αυγής. Η θεά είδε την ίδια της την αντανάκλαση σε ένα καθρέφτη που είχε κρεμάσει η Ουζούμε σε ένα δέντρο κι όταν πλησίασε περισσότερο, οι θεοί την τράβηξαν έξω από το σπήλαιο κι έτσι ξαναγύρισε πίσω στον ουρανό, φωτίζοντας και πάλι τον κόσμο.
Απεικονίζεται ως καθρέφτης στο ιερό της στο Ίσε στο νησί Χονσού, το οποίο χτίζεται εκ θεμελίων κάθε 20 χρόνια.
Από την Αματεράσου προέρχεται η γενεαλογία της αυτοκρατορικής ιαπωνικής οικογένειας, καθώς ο εγγονός της, Νινίγκι έγινε άρχοντας της Ιαπωνίας, παντρεύτηκε τη θεά του όρους Φούτζι και γέννησαν τρεις γιους, ένας από τους οποίους ήταν ο πατέρας του Τζίμου Τέννο, του πρώτου ιστορικού Ιάπωνα αυτοκράτορα (660 π.Χ.), από τον οποίο προέρχεται η ιαπωνική αυτοκρατορική οικογένεια.
Μέχρι το 1945, αποκαλούνταν "υπέρλαμπρη πρόγονος του Αυτοκράτορα". Εκείνη την περίοδο, ο Αυτοκράτορας Χιροχίτο αποκήρυξε κάθε μορφή θεϊκής καταγωγής και δεν επιτρεπόταν πλέον η λατρεία πολυθεϊστικών προγόνων.

Πηγή απο http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%85

Τσουκουγιόμι

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Ναός του θεού Τσουκουγιόμι στο Κυότο



Ο Τσουκουγιόμι ή Τσουκιγιόμι (ιαπ. ツクヨミ) είναι ο θεός της σελήνης στην ιαπωνική μυθολογία.
Ήταν το δεύτερο από τα τρία παιδιά του Ιζανάγκι, που γεννήθηκαν όταν ο Ιζανάγκι καθαριζόταν από τις αμαρτίες του μετά τη φυγή του από τον Κάτω Κόσμο και το θάνατο της συζύγου του, Ιζανάμι. Σύμφωνα με αυτή την εκδοχή, λοιπόν, ο Τσουκουγιόμι γεννήθηκε από το δεξί του μάτι^[1], ενώ κατά μια άλλη ιστορία από ένα χάλκινο καθρέφτη στο δεξί χέρι του Ιζανάγκι.
Ζούσε στους ουρανούς (Τακαμαγκαχάρα), μαζί με την αδερφή του, Αματεράσου, θεά του ήλιου. Προκάλεσε το θυμό της όταν σκότωσε την Ούκε Μότσι, θεά προστάτιδα της τροφής. Η Αματεράσου οργίστηκε τόσο πολύ, ώστε μετακόμισε σε άλλο σημείο του ουρανού και γι' αυτό το λόγο η μέρα με τη νύχτα δεν υπάρχουν ποτέ μαζί. Σύμφωνα με μεταγενέστερες εκδοχές, η Ούκε Μότσι δολοφονείται από τον θεό Σουσάνο.

Japanese mythology wolves
In Japan, grain farmers once worshiped wolves at shrines and left food offerings near their dens, beseeching them to protect their crops from wild boars and deer. Talismans and charms adorned with images of wolves were thought to protect against fire, disease, and other calamities and brought fertility to agrarian communities and to couples hoping to have children. The Ainu people believed that they were born from the union of a wolflike creature and a goddess.^[13]

Kitsune



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For other uses, see Kitsune (disambiguation).


Prince Hanzoku terrorized by a nine-tailed fox. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 19th century.




Kitsune (狐^?, IPA: [kitsɯne] ( listen)) is the Japanese word for fox. Foxes are a common subject of Japanese folklore; in English, kitsune refers to them in this context. Stories depict them as intelligent beings and as possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom. Foremost among these is the ability to assume human form. While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others—as foxes in folklore often do—other stories portray them as faithful guardians, friends, lovers, and wives.

Foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan; this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures. Kitsune have become closely associated with Inari, a Shinto kami or spirit, and serve as its messengers. This role has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance. The more tails a kitsune has—they may have as many as nine—the older, wiser, and more powerful it is. Because of their potential power and influence, some people make offerings to them as to a deity.



Origins


A nine-tailed fox, from the Qing edition of the ancient text Shan Hai Jing.




It is widely agreed that many fox myths in Japan can be traced to China, Korea, or India. Chinese folk tales tell of fox spirits (called Huli-jing) that may have up to nine tails, or Kyūbi no Kitsune in Japanese. Many of the earliest surviving stories are recorded in the Konjaku Monogatari, an 11th-century collection of Chinese, Indian, and Japanese narratives.^[1]

There is debate whether the kitsune myths originated entirely from foreign sources or are in part an indigenous Japanese concept dating as far back as the fifth century BC. Japanese folklorist Kiyoshi Nozaki argues that the Japanese regarded kitsune positively as early as the 4th century A.D.; the only things imported from China or Korea were the kitsune's negative attributes.^[2] He states that, according to a 16th-century book of records called the Nihon Ryakki, foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan, and he contends that indigenous legends about the creatures arose as a result.^[3] Inari scholar Karen Smyers notes that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories, but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan.^[4]

Japan is home to two red fox subspecies: the Hokkaido fox (Vulpes vulpes schrencki, pictured), and the Japanese red fox (Vulpes vulpes japonica).


Etymology


The full etymology is unknown. The oldest known usage of the word is in the 794 text Shin'yaku Kegonkyō Ongi Shiki. Other old sources include Nihon Ryōiki (810–824) and Wamyō Ruijushō (c. 934). These oldest sources are written in Man'yōgana which clearly identifies the historical spelling as ki₁tune. Following several diachronic phonological changes, this becomes kitsune.

Many etymological suggestions have been made; however, there is no general agreement.

• Myōgoki (1268) suggests that it is so called because it is "always (tsune) yellow (ki)".
  
• Early Kamakura period Mizukagami indicates that it means "came (ki) [perfective case particle tsu] to bedroom (ne)" due to a legend that a kitsune would change into one's wife and bear children.
  
• Arai Hakuseki in Tōga (1717) suggests that ki means "stench", tsu is a possessive particle, and ne is related to inu, the word for "dog".
  
• Tanikawa Kotosuga in Wakun no Shiori (1777–1887) suggests that ki means "yellow", tsu is a possessive particle, and ne is related to neko, the word for cat.
  
• Ōtsuki Fumihiko in Daigenkai (1932–1935) proposes that kitsu is an onomatopoeia for the animal, and that ne is an affix or an honorific word meaning a servant of an Inari shrine.
  

According to Nozaki, the word kitsune was originally onomatopoeia.^[3] Kitsu represented a fox's yelp and came to be the general word for fox. -Ne signifies an affectionate mood, which Nozaki presents as further evidence of an established, non-imported tradition of benevolent foxes in Japanese folklore.^[2] Kitsu is now archaic; in modern Japanese, a fox's cry is transcribed as kon kon or gon gon.

One of the oldest surviving kitsune tales provides a widely known folk etymology of the word kitsune.^[5] Unlike most tales of kitsune who become human and marry human males, this one does not end tragically:^[6][7]

Ono, an inhabitant of Mino (says an ancient Japanese legend of A.D. 545), spent the seasons longing for his ideal of female beauty. He met her one evening on a vast moor and married her. Simultaneously with the birth of their son, Ono's dog was delivered of a pup which as it grew up became more and more hostile to the lady of the moors. She begged her husband to kill it, but he refused. At last one day the dog attacked her so furiously that she lost courage, resumed vulpine shape, leaped over a fence and fled.

"You may be a fox," Ono called after her, "but you are the mother of my son and I love you. Come back when you please; you will always be welcome."

So every evening she stole back and slept in his arms.^[5]

Because the fox returns to her husband each night as a woman but leaves each morning as a fox, she is called Kitsune. In classical Japanese, kitsu-ne means come and sleep, and ki-tsune means always comes.^[7]

Characteristics


Statue of a kitsune at the Inari shrine adjacent to Tōdai-ji Buddhist temple in Nara




Kitsune are believed to possess superior intelligence, long life, and magical powers. They are a type of yōkai, or spiritual entity, and the word kitsune is often translated as fox spirit. However, this does not mean that kitsune are ghosts, nor that they are fundamentally different from regular foxes. Because the word spirit is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment, all long-lived foxes gain supernatural abilities^[4]

There are two common classifications of kitsune. The zenko (善狐^?, literally good foxes) are benevolent, celestial foxes associated with the god Inari; they are sometimes simply called Inari foxes. On the other hand, the yako (野狐^?, literally field foxes, also called nogitsune) tend to be mischievous or even malicious.^[8] Local traditions add further types.^[9] For example, a ninko is an invisible fox spirit that human beings can only perceive when it possesses them. Another tradition classifies kitsune into one of thirteen types defined by which supernatural abilities the kitsune possesses.^[10][11]

Physically, kitsune are noted for having as many as nine tails.^[12] Generally, a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful fox; in fact, some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived 100 years.^[13] One, five, seven, and nine tails are the most common numbers in folk stories.^[14] When a kitsune gains its ninth tail, its fur becomes white or gold.^[12] These kyūbi no kitsune (九尾の狐^?, nine-tailed foxes) gain the abilities to see and hear anything happening anywhere in the world. Other tales attribute them infinite wisdom (omniscience).^[15]



This obake karuta (monster card) from the early 19th century depicts a kitsune. The associated game involves matching clues from folklore to pictures of specific creatures.



Shapeshifting


"Fox women" by Bertha Lum: kitsune as women




A kitsune may take on human form, an ability learned when it reaches a certain age—usually 100 years, although some tales say 50.^[13] As a common prerequisite for the transformation, the fox must place reeds, a broad leaf, or a skull over its head.^[16] Common forms assumed by kitsune include beautiful women, young girls, or elderly men. These shapes are not limited by the fox's age or gender,^[4] and a kitsune can duplicate the appearance of a specific person.^[17] Foxes are particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women. Common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or night, could be a fox.^[18]

In some stories, kitsune have difficulty hiding their tails when they take human form; looking for the tail, perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless, is a common method of discerning the creature's true nature.^[19] Variants on the theme have the kitsune retain other foxlike traits, such as a coating of fine hair, a fox-shaped shadow, or a reflection that shows its true form.^[20] Kitsune-gao or fox-faced refers to human females who have a narrow face with close-set eyes, thin eyebrows, and high cheekbones. Traditionally, this facial structure is considered attractive, and some tales ascribe it to foxes in human form.^[21] Kitsune have a fear and hatred of dogs even while in human form, and some become so rattled by the presence of dogs that they revert to the shape of a fox and flee. A particularly devout individual may be able to see through a fox's disguise automatically.^[22]

One folk story illustrating these imperfections in the kitsune's human shape concerns Koan, a historical person credited with wisdom and magical powers of divination. According to the story, he was staying at the home of one of his devotees when he scalded his foot entering a bath because the water had been drawn too hot. Then, "in his pain, he ran out of the bathroom naked. When the people of the household saw him, they were astonished to see that Koan had fur covering much of his body, along with a fox's tail. Then Koan transformed in front of them, becoming an elderly fox and running away."^[23]

Other supernatural abilities commonly attributed to the kitsune include possession, mouths or tails that generate fire or lightning (known as kitsune-bi; literally, fox-fire), willful manifestation in the dreams of others, flight, invisibility, and the creation of illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality.^[16][20] Some tales speak of kitsune with even greater powers, able to bend time and space, drive people mad, or take fantastic shapes such as a tree of incredible height or a second moon in the sky.^[24][25] Other kitsune have characteristics reminiscent of vampires or succubi and feed on the life or spirit of human beings, generally through sexual contact.^[26

Inari and its fox spirits help the blacksmith Munechika forge the blade kogitsune-maru (Little Fox) at the end of the 10th century. The legend is the subject of the noh drama Sanjō Kokaji.


Kitsunetsuki


Kitsunetsuki (狐憑き or 狐付き; also written kitsune-tsuki) literally means the state of being possessed by a fox. The victim is always a young woman, whom the fox enters beneath her fingernails or through her breasts.^[27] In some cases, the victims' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they resemble those of a fox. Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause illiterate victims to temporarily gain the ability to read.^[28] Though foxes in folklore can possess a person of their own will, Kitsunetsuki is often attributed to the malign intents of hereditary fox employers, or tsukimono-suji.^[29]

Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition in the first volume of his Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan:

Strange is the madness of those into whom demon foxes enter. Sometimes they run naked shouting through the streets. Sometimes they lie down and froth at the mouth, and yelp as a fox yelps. And on some part of the body of the possessed a moving lump appears under the skin, which seems to have a life of its own. Prick it with a needle, and it glides instantly to another place. By no grasp can it be so tightly compressed by a strong hand that it will not slip from under the fingers. Possessed folk are also said to speak and write languages of which they were totally ignorant prior to possession. They eat only what foxes are believed to like — tofu, aburagé, azukimeshi, etc. — and they eat a great deal, alleging that not they, but the possessing foxes, are hungry.^[30]

He goes on to note that, once freed from the possession, the victim will never again be able to eat tofu, azukimeshi, or other foods favored by foxes.

Exorcism, often performed at an Inari shrine, may induce a fox to leave its host.^[31] In the past, when such gentle measures failed or a priest was not available, victims of kitsunetsuki were beaten or badly burned in hopes of forcing the fox to leave. Entire families were ostracized by their communities after a member of the family was thought to be possessed.^[30]

In Japan, kitsunetsuki was noted as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for mental illness until the early 20th century.^[32][33] Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior displayed by the afflicted individuals. In the late 19th century, Dr. Shunichi Shimamura noted that physical diseases that caused fever were often considered kitsunetsuki.^[34] The belief has lost favor, but stories of fox possession still appear in the tabloid press and popular media.^{[citation needed]} One notable occasion involved allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed.^[35]

In medicine, kitsunetsuki is an ethnic psychosis unique to Japanese culture. Those who suffer from the condition believe they are possessed by a fox.^[36] Symptoms include cravings for rice or sweet red beans, listlessness, restlessness, and aversion to eye contact. Kitsunetsuki is similar to but distinct from clinical lycanthropy.^[37]

Hoshi no tama （ほしのたま）


Kitsune glowing with fox-fire gather near Edo. Print by Hiroshige.




Depictions of kitsune or their possessed victims may feature round or onion-shaped white balls known as hoshi no tama (star balls). Tales describe these as glowing with kitsune-bi, or fox-fire.^[38] Some stories identify them as magical jewels or pearls.^[39] When not in human form or possessing a human, a kitsune keeps the ball in its mouth or carries it on its tail.^[13] Jewels are a common symbol of Inari, and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare.^[40]

One belief is that when a kitsune changes shape, its hoshi no tama holds a portion of its magical power. Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune's soul; the kitsune will die if separated from it for long. Those who obtain the ball may be able to extract a promise from the kitsune to help them in exchange for its return.^[41] For example, a 12th-century tale describes a man using a fox's hoshi no tama to secure a favor:

"Confound you!" snapped the fox. "Give me back my ball!" The man ignored its pleas till finally it said tearfully, "All right, you've got the ball, but you don't know how to keep it. It won't be any good to you. For me, it's a terrible loss. I tell you, if you don't give it back, I'll be your enemy forever. If you do give it back though, I'll stick to you like a protector god."

The fox later saves his life by leading him past a band of armed robbers.^[42]

Portrayal


Inari appears to a warrior, accompanied by a kitsune. This portrayal of Inari shows the influence of Dakiniten concepts from Buddhism. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi.



Servants of Inari


Kitsune are associated with Inari, the Shinto deity of rice.^[43] This association has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance.^[44] Originally, kitsune were Inari's messengers, but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari itself may be depicted as a fox. Likewise, entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune, where devotees can leave offerings.^[9] Fox spirits are said to be particularly fond of a fried sliced tofu called aburage, which is accordingly found in the noodle-based dishes kitsune udon and kitsune soba. Similarly, Inari-zushi is a type of sushi named for Inari that consists of rice-filled pouches of fried tofu.^[45] There is speculation among folklorists as to whether another Shinto fox deity existed in the past. Foxes have long been worshipped as kami.^[46]

Inari's kitsune are white, a color of good omen.^[9] They possess the power to ward off evil, and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits. In addition to protecting Inari shrines, they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and particularly to aid against troublesome nogitsune, those spirit foxes who do not serve Inari. Black foxes and nine-tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens.^[19]

According to beliefs derived from fusui (feng shui), the fox's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can dispel the evil kimon, or energy, that flows from the northeast. Many Inari shrines, such as the famous Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto, feature such statues, sometimes large numbers of them.

Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten, goddesses conflated with Inari's female aspect. Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox.^[47]

Tricksters


The Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto features numerous kitsune statues.




Kitsune are often presented as tricksters, with motives that vary from mischief to malevolence. Stories tell of kitsune playing tricks on overly proud samurai, greedy merchants, and boastful commoners, while the crueler ones abuse poor tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks. Their victims are usually men; women are possessed instead.^[18] For example, kitsune are thought to employ their kitsune-bi or fox-fire to lead travelers astray in the manner of a will o' the wisp.^[48][49] Another tactic is for the kitsune to confuse its target with illusions or visions.^[18] Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction, theft of food, humiliation of the prideful, or vengeance for a perceived slight.

A traditional game called kitsune-ken (fox-fist) references the kitsune's powers over human beings. The game is similar to rock, paper, scissors, but the three hand positions signify a fox, a hunter, and a village headman. The headman beats the hunter, whom he outranks; the hunter beats the fox, whom he shoots; the fox beats the headman, whom he bewitches.^[50][51]

This ambiguous portrayal, coupled with their reputation for vengefulness, leads people to try to discover a troublesome fox's motives. In one case, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the effective leader of Japan, wrote a letter to the kami Inari:

To Inari Daimyojin,

My lord, I have the honor to inform you that one of the foxes under your jurisdiction has bewitched one of my servants, causing her and others a great deal of trouble. I have to request that you make minute inquiries into the matter, and endeavor to find out the reason of your subject misbehaving in this way, and let me know the result.

If it turns out that the fox has no adequate reason to give for his behavior, you are to arrest and punish him at once. If you hesitate to take action in this matter I shall issue orders for the destruction of every fox in the land. Any other particulars that you may wish to be informed of in reference to what has occurred, you can learn from the high priest of Yoshida.^[52]

Tamamo-no-Mae, a legendary kitsune featured in noh and kyogen plays. Print by Yoshitoshi.




Kitsune keep their promises and strive to repay any favor. Occasionally a kitsune attaches itself to a person or household, where they can cause all sorts of mischief. In one story from the 12th century, only the homeowner's threat to exterminate the foxes convinces them to behave. The kitsune patriarch appears in the man's dreams:

"My father lived here before me, sir, and by now I have many children and grandchildren. They get into a lot of mischief, I'm afraid, and I'm always after them to stop, but they never listen. And now, sir, you're understandably fed up with us. I gather that you're going to kill us all. But I just want you to know, sir, how sorry I am that this is our last night of life. Won't you pardon us, one more time? If we ever make trouble again, then of course you must act as you think best. But the young ones, sir — I'm sure they'll understand when I explain to them why you're so upset. We'll do everything we can to protect you from now on, if only you'll forgive us, and we'll be sure to let you know when anything good is going to happen!"^[53]

Other kitsune use their magic for the benefit of their companion or hosts as long as the human beings treat them with respect. As yōkai, however, kitsune do not share human morality, and a kitsune who has adopted a house in this manner may, for example, bring its host money or items that it has stolen from the neighbors. Accordingly, common households thought to harbor kitsune are treated with suspicion.^[54] Oddly, samurai families were often reputed to share similar arrangements with kitsune, but these foxes were considered zenko and the use of their magic a sign of prestige.^[55] Abandoned homes were common haunts for kitsune.^[18] One 12th-century story tells of a minister moving into an old mansion only to discover a family of foxes living there. They first try to scare him away, then claim that the house "has been ours for many years, and . . . we wish to register a vigorous protest." The man refuses, and the foxes resign themselves to moving to an abandoned lot nearby.^[56]

Tales distinguish kitsune gifts from kitsune payments. If a kitsune offers a payment or reward that includes money or material wealth, part or all of the sum will consist of old paper, leaves, twigs, stones, or similar valueless items under a magical illusion.^[57][58] True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles, such as protection, knowledge, or long life.^[58]

The kitsune Kuzunoha casts a fox's shadow even in human form. Kuzunoha is a popular figure in folklore and the subject of kabuki plays. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi.


Wives and lovers


Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers, usually in stories involving a young human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a human woman.^[59] The kitsune may be a seductress, but these stories are more often romantic in nature.^[60] Typically, the young man unknowingly marries the fox, who proves a devoted wife. The man eventually discovers the fox's true nature, and the fox-wife is forced to leave him. In some cases, the husband wakes as if from a dream, filthy, disoriented, and far from home. He must then return to confront his abandoned family in shame.

Many stories tell of fox-wives bearing children. When such progeny are human, they possess special physical or supernatural qualities that often pass to their own children.^[19] The astrologer-magician Abe no Seimei was reputed to have inherited such extraordinary powers.^[61]

Other stories tell of kitsune marrying one another. Rain falling from a clear sky — a sunshower — is called kitsune no yomeiri or the kitsune's wedding, in reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures being held during such conditions.^[62] The event is considered a good omen, but the kitsune will seek revenge on any uninvited guests.^[63]

Stephen Turnbull, in "Nagashino 1575", relates the tale of the Takeda clan's involvement with a fox-woman. The warlord Takeda Shingen, in 1544, defeated in battle a lesser local warlord named Suwa Yorishige and drove him to suicide after a "humiliating and spurious" peace conference, after which Shingen forced marriage on Suwa Yorishige's beautiful 14-year-old daughter Lady Koi—Shingen's own niece. Shingen, Turnbull writes, "was so obsessed with the girl that his superstitious followers became alarmed and believed her to be an incarnation of the white fox-spirit of the Suwa Shrine, who had bewitched him in order to gain revenge." When their son Takeda Katsuyori proved to be a disastrous leader and led the clan to their devastating defeat at the battle of Nagashino, Turnbull writes, "wise old heads nodded, remembering the unhappy circumstances of his birth and his magical mother".

In fiction


Embedded in Japanese folklore as they are, kitsune appear in numerous Japanese works. Noh, kyogen, bunraku, and kabuki plays derived from folk tales feature them,^[64][65] as do contemporary works such as anime, manga and video games. Western authors of fiction have begun to make use of the kitsune legends.^[66] Although these portrayals vary considerably, kitsune are generally depicted in accordance with folk stories, as wise, cunning, and powerful beings.



Πηγή απο http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitsune

Inari Ōkami



Inari Ōkami (稲荷大神^?, also Oinari) is the Japanese kami of fertility, rice, agriculture, foxes, industry and worldly success and one of the principal kami of Shinto. Represented as male, female, or androgynous, Inari is sometimes seen as a collective of three or five individual kami. Inari appears to have been worshipped since the founding of a shrine at Inari Mountain in 711 AD, although some scholars believe that worship started in the late 5th century.

Worship of Inari spread across Japan in the Edo period, and by the 16th century Inari had become the patron of blacksmiths and the protector of warriors. Inari is a popular figure in both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs in Japan. More than one-third (32,000) of the Shinto shrines in Japan are dedicated to Inari. Modern corporations, such as cosmetic company Shiseido, continue to revere Inari as a patron kami, with shrines atop their corporate headquarters.^[1]

Inari's foxes, or kitsune, are pure white and act as his/her messengers.



Depiction

Inari appears to a warrior. This portrayal of Inari shows the influence of Dakiniten concepts from Buddhism.




Inari has been depicted both as male and as female. The most popular representations of Inari, according to scholar Karen Ann Smyers, are a young female food goddess, an old man carrying rice, and an androgynous bodhisattva.^[2] No one view is correct; the preferred gender of depiction varies according to regional traditions and individual beliefs.^[2] Because of his/her close association with kitsune, Inari is often believed to be a fox; though this belief is widespread, both Shinto and Buddhist priests discourage it.^[2] Inari also appears in the form of a snake or dragon, and one folktale has Inari appear to a wicked man in the shape of a monstrous spider as a way of teaching him a lesson.

Inari is sometimes identified with other mythological figures. Some scholars suggest that Inari is the figure known in classical Japanese mythology as Ukanomitama or the Kojiki's Ōgetsu-Hime; others suggest Inari is the same figure as Toyouke. Some take Inari to be identical to any grain kami.^[3][4]

Inari's female aspect is often identified or conflated with Dakiniten, a Buddhist deity who is a Japanese transformation of the Indian dakini,^[5] or with Benzaiten of the Seven Lucky Gods.^[6] Dakiniten is portrayed as a female or androgynous bodhisattva riding a flying white fox.^[5] Inari's association with Buddhism may have begun in the 8th century, when Shingon Buddhist monk and founder, Kūkai, took over administration of the temple of Tōji, and chose Inari as a protector of the temple.^[1] Thus, Inari is still closely associated with Shingon Buddhism to this day.

Inari is often venerated as a collective of three deities (Inari sanza); since the Kamakura period, this number has sometimes increased to five kami (Inari goza). However, the identification of these kami has varied over time. According to records of Fushimi Inari, the oldest and perhaps most prominent Inari shrine, these kami have included Izanagi, Izanami, Ninigi, and Wakumusubi, in addition to the food deities previously mentioned. The five kami today identified with Inari at Fushimi Inari are Ukanomitama, Sarutahiko, Omiyanome, Tanaka, and Shi. However, at Takekoma Inari, the second-oldest Inari shrine in Japan, the three enshrined deities are Ukanomitama, Ukemochi, and Wakumusubi.^[7] According to the Nijūni shaki, the three kami are Ōmiyame no mikoto (water,) Ukanomitama no mikoto (grain,) and Sarutahiko no mikami (land.)

The fox and the wish-fulfilling jewel are prominent symbols of Inari. Other common elements in depictions of Inari, and sometimes of his/her kitsune, include a sickle, a sheaf or sack of rice, and a sword. Another belonging was her whip—although she was hardly known to use it, it was a powerful weapon that was used to burn people's crops of rice.





Inari and her fox spirits help the blacksmith Munechika forge the blade kogitsune-maru (Little Fox) in the late 10th century. This legend is the subject of the noh drama Sanjo Kokaji.

History
The Hokkaido red fox



Searching the Seas with the Tenkei (天瓊を以て滄海を探るの図, Tenkei o motte sōkai o saguru no zu^?). Painting by Kobayashi Eitaku, 1880-90 (MFA, Boston). Izanagi to the right, Izanami to the left.




The origin of Inari worship is not entirely clear. The first recorded use of the present-day kanji (characters) of Inari's name, which mean "carrying rice," (literally "rice load") was in the Ruijū Kokushi in 892 AD. Other sets of kanji with the same phonetic readings, most of which contained a reference to rice, were in use earlier, and most scholars agree that the name Inari is derived from ine-nari (growing rice) (稲成り^?).^[8] The worship of Inari is known to have existed as of 711 AD, the official founding date of the shrine at Inari Mountain in Fushimi, Kyoto. Scholars such as Kazuo Higo believe worship was conducted for centuries before that date; they suggest that the Hata clan began the formal worship of Inari as an agriculture kami in the late fifth century.^[9] The name Inari does not appear in classical Japanese mythology.^[10]

By the Heian period, Inari worship began to spread. In 823 AD, after Emperor Saga presented the Tō-ji temple to Kūkai, the founder of the Shingon Buddhist sect, the latter designated Inari as its resident protector kami.^[9] In 827, the court granted Inari the lower fifth rank, which further increased the deity's popularity in the capital. Inari's rank was subsequently increased, and by 942, Emperor Suzaku granted Inari the top rank in thanks for overcoming rebellions. At this time, the Fushimi Inari-taisha shrine was among the twenty-two shrines chosen by the court to receive imperial patronage, a high honor.^[11] The second Inari shrine, Takekoma Inari, was established in the late ninth century.

Inari's popularity continued to grow. The Fushimi shrine, already a popular pilgrimage site, gained wide renown when it became an imperial pilgrimage site in 1072. By 1338, the shrine's festival was said to rival the Gion Festival in splendor.^[12]

In 1468, during the Ōnin War, the entire Fushimi shrine complex was burned. Rebuilding took about thirty years; the new building was consecrated in 1499. While the old complex had enshrined three kami in separate buildings, the new one enshrined five kami in a single building. The new shrine also included a Buddhist temple building for the first time, and the hereditary priesthood was expanded to include the Kada clan.^[13]

Statue of a kitsune adorned with a red votive bib in a shrine at Inuyama Castle. Many castles in Japan contain Inari shrines.




During the Edo period, Inari worship spread across Japan; it became especially prominent in Edo.^[14] Smyers attributes this spread to the movement of daimyo (feudal lords). Inari had by the sixteenth century become the patron of blacksmiths and the protector of warriors — for this reason, many castle compounds in Japan contain Inari shrines — and the daimyo took their belief in their protector kami with them when they relocated to a new domain.^[14] Inari's divine role continued to expand; on the coast, he/she became a protector of fishermen; in Edo, he/she was invoked to prevent fires. He/she became the patron of actors and of prostitutes, since his/her shrines were often found near the pleasure quarters where these individuals lived. He/she began to be worshipped as the Desire-Fulfilling Inari, a deity of luck and prosperity; a common saying in Osaka was Byō Kōbō, yoku Inari (For sickness [pray to] Kōbō, for desires [pray to] Inari).^[15][16] Ironically, Inari also began to be petitioned for good health; he/she is credited with curing such diverse afflictions as coughs, toothaches, broken bones, and syphilis.^[17] Women prayed to Inari to grant them children.

After a government decree mandated the separation of Buddhist and Shinto beliefs, many Inari shrines underwent changes. At Fushimi Inari, for instance, structures that were obviously Buddhist were torn down. Among the populace, however, the blended form of worship continued.^[18] Some Buddhist temples, such as Toyokawa Inari, maintained Inari worship by arguing that they had always been devoted to a Buddhist deity (often Dakiniten), which the common folk had mistaken as Inari.^[19]

In the Tokugawa period, when money replaced rice as the measure of wealth in Japan, Inari's role as a kami of worldly prosperity was expanded to include all aspects of finance, business, and industry. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, followers of Inari at the Ginza mint struck coins meant for offerings to Inari, which featured pictures of two foxes and a jewel or the characters for long life and good luck.^[20

Shrines and offerings Main article: Inari shrine

Red torii along a path at the Fushimi Inari shrine in Fushimi, near Kyoto.




Inari is a popular deity with shrines and temples located throughout most of Japan. According to a 1985 survey by the National Association of Shinto Shrines, 32,000 shrines — more than one-third of Shinto shrines in Japan — are dedicated to Inari.^[21] This number includes only Shinto shrines with full-time resident priests; if small roadside or field shrines, shrines kept in a home or corporate office, smaller shrines without full-time resident priests, and Buddhist temples were included, the number would increase by at least an order of magnitude.^[22]

The entrance to an Inari shrine is usually marked by one or more vermilion torii and some statues of kitsune, which are often adorned with red yodarekake (votive bibs) by worshippers out of respect. This red color has come to be identified with Inari, because of the prevalence of its use among Inari shrines and their torii.^[23] The main shrine is the Fushimi Inari Shrine in Fushimi, Kyoto, Japan, where the paths up the shrine hill are marked in this fashion. The kitsune statues are at times taken for a form of Inari, and they typically come in pairs, representing a male and a female.^[24] These fox statues hold a symbolic item in their mouths or beneath a front paw — most often a jewel and a key, but a sheaf of rice, a scroll, or a fox cub are all common. Almost all Inari shrines, no matter how small, will feature at least a pair of these statues, usually flanking or on the altar or in front of the main sanctuary.^[24] The statues are rarely realistic; they are typically stylized, portraying a seated animal with its tail in the air looking forward. Despite these common characteristics, the statues are highly individual in nature; no two are quite the same.^[25][26]

Offerings of rice, sake, and other food are given at the shrine to appease and please these kitsune messengers, who are then expected to plead with Inari on the worshipper's behalf.^[27] Inari-zushi, a Japanese sushi roll of packaged fried tofu, is another popular offering. Fried tofu is believed to be a favorite food of Japanese foxes, and an Inari-zushi roll has pointed corners that resemble fox ears, thus reinforcing the association.^[28] Priests do not normally offer these foods to the deity, but it is common for shops that line the approach to an Inari shrine to sell fried tofu for devotees to offer.^[29] Fox statues are often offered to Inari shrines by worshippers, and on occasion a stuffed and mounted fox is presented to a temple. At one time, some temples were home to live foxes that were venerated, but this is not current practice.^ed]]

Festival


Inari's traditional festival day was the first horse day (the sixth day) of the second month (nigatsu no hatsuuma) of the lunisolar calendar.^[12]

In some parts of Kyūshū, a festival or praying period begins five days before the full moon in November; occasionally it is extended to a full week. This is accompanied by bringing offerings of rice products to a shrine to Inari each day and receiving o-mamori (protection charms).



Πηγή απο http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inari_(mythology)

Japanese Mythology, Legends, Lore & Animal Tales





Fox in Japanese Legends - wiki commonsMany Japanese legends and myths about talking animals and animal tales are intrinsic to Shinto belief & the people of ancient Japan. Stories of fox, dog & cat are common

Many ancient Japanese legends and much of the mythology of Japan revolve around animals, very often creatures that can speak or communicate with mankind in some way. In some respects this is unsurprising due to the oral nature of such a great deal of Japanese history and Shinto beliefs in the spirits, or Kami, that abound in the natural world. In Shinto belief every natural thing - from man to mountain to cherry tree- possesses a Kami in varying degrees of intensity. Further some aspects of the natural world are believed to have been created by, or be descended from, deities.

Animals in Japanese Mythology and Legends


This article discusses some of the ancient tales about animals in Japanese mythology. The animals that appear most frequently in Japanese legends and animal tales tend to be the fox, the dog, the cat, the badger and the mythical dragon.

The Rice God, Inari, uses the fox as a messenger and Japanese folklore states that foxes have legendary powers to transform themselves into human guise. One ancient Japanese legend tells of a man who discovered his wife was, in fact, a fox when he noticed her brush hanging from beneath the bed quilt.


Oldest Japanese Animal Tale - The White Hare of Oki



One of the most renowned and oldest of the Japanese animal legends is that of the White Hare of Oki, which is recounted in the Kojiki. The Kojiki is one of the earliest ancient books of Japan and a source for early Japanese history, myths and legends.

This legend recounts the tale of a talking hare who tricked a group of crocodiles into forming a bridge so he could escape from his island home. After a series of adventures the hare became travelling companion to Oh-kuni-nushi, who soon after married the Princess Inaba and became ruler of the land of Izumo.

The Tale of the Grateful Dog and the Tale of the Grateful Bee


The gratitude of animals is expressed in the tale of the grateful dog and the tale of the grateful bee. In the first story an old woman is saved from poverty by the appearance of a large mass of silk worms at the place where she had just buried her dead dog. The magical silk worms matured immediately and produced such fine silk that the old woman was able to sell her cloth to the Imperial court.

The second tale of the grateful bee involves a warrior who rescued a bee from a spider's web. That night the warrior dreamt that the grateful bee would repay him and the very next time the warrior went into battle swarms of bees arrived and defeated his enemies.

The famed Japanese legend of the Old Man and the Cherry Tree also involves the gratitude of a pet dog and how it managed to provide wealth for its poverty stricken owners.

It has been said that the Japanese belief system of Shinto recognizes more than 8million gods and deities and a belief in the Kami or spirits of the natural world is intrinsic to Shinto. It is hardly surprizing, therefore, that legends about animals are so popular or that talking animals are such a common feature. Another significant factor to the Shinto way of life is the importance of plants and flowers where many further myths abound and which is indicated by the proliferation of flowers in Japanese heraldry.



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